Push-Pull Theory of Migration

International labour migration occurs when people move across national borders to seek or take up work. The push-pull framework explains this movement through adverse conditions at the place of origin, called push factors, and attractive opportunities at the destination, called pull factors.

Push factors at the place of origin

Push factors increase the pressure to leave by making local livelihoods inadequate, insecure or less rewarding.

• Unemployment and underemployment encourage workers to search abroad when local economies cannot provide sufficient or regular employment.
• Low wages and poor working conditions can encourage migration even among employed people, especially when earnings do not meet household needs.
• Landlessness, agricultural distress and environmental degradation can weaken rural livelihoods and encourage workers to seek employment elsewhere, including abroad.
• Conflict and persecution can force people to leave their country; however, forced displacement should not be treated as identical to voluntary labour migration.

Pull factors at the destination

Pull factors make a destination appear capable of providing a better livelihood. Their importance depends on workers' skills, expectations and access to employment.

• Higher wages and labour demand attract workers where employers need labour in particular occupations or sectors.
• Better working conditions, career progression and opportunities to use specialised skills can attract skilled workers.
• Migrant networks provide information, accommodation and employment contacts, reducing the costs and uncertainty faced by later migrants.
• Better living conditions and access to services can reinforce employment-related attractions, although migrants' actual access depends on their legal status and destination-country rules.

How push and pull factors interact

Migration results from the interaction of origin and destination conditions, rather than either set of factors operating alone. Unemployment at home is more likely to produce international migration when accessible jobs exist abroad.

• Intervening obstacles, including travel costs, recruitment expenses, distance and immigration restrictions, can prevent migration despite strong incentives.
• The poorest people may lack the resources needed to migrate internationally; hardship does not automatically translate into greater migration.
• Households may support a member's migration to diversify income and receive remittances, making migration a family livelihood strategy rather than only an individual choice.
• Expected benefits may differ from actual outcomes when workers face misleading recruitment, insecure employment or exploitation.